Normal Approach and Landing

• Approach speed: the manufacturer's published approach airspeed, or in its absence not more than 1.3 VSO, ±5 knots with gust factor applied
• Touch down at a proper pitch attitude, within 200 feet beyond or on the specified point, with no side drift, and with the longitudinal axis aligned with and over the runway centerline
• Maintain directional control and appropriate crosswind correction throughout
• Execute a timely go-around if the approach cannot be made within those tolerances, or for any other condition that may result in an unsafe approach or landing (AI.VII.B.S11)

Note the CFI touchdown box is 200 feet, tighter than the private standard. Your student is trained to a looser number than you are graded to.

A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant-angle glide path toward a predetermined point on the landing runway, based on judgment of visual cues and depending on maintaining a constant final descent airspeed and configuration (AFH ch. 9).

For a typical piston airplane the criteria are (AFH ch. 9):

• Glide path — typically a constant 3° to the touchdown zone
• Heading — tracks the centerline, bank normally limited to 15° once on final
• Airspeed — within +10/−5 KIAS of the recommended landing speed, 1.3 VSO, or placarded speed; with a gust factor, airspeed should not decay below the recommended landing speed
• Configuration — correct landing configuration, gear down, in trim
• Descent rate — generally 500–1,000 fpm; if using more than 500 fpm, reduce it prior to 300 feet AGL
• Power — appropriate, not below the AFM minimum approach power
• Briefings and checklists complete before starting the approach, except the landing checklist

Teach the elements, not the recitation — the AFH says to focus on the elements that lead to a stabilized approach rather than the order or insistence on meeting all criteria.

Attach the numbers that make it a commitment rather than an opinion: pilots typically go around if unable to establish a stabilized approach by 500 feet above airport elevation in VMC (1,000 feet in IMC), and for a typical GA piston airplane in a traffic pattern, an immediate go-around should be initiated if the approach becomes unstabilized below 300 feet AGL (AFH ch. 9). More on teaching that decision in Task VII.N.

An airplane descending on final at a constant rate and airspeed travels in a straight line toward a spot on the ground ahead — if it maintained the glide path without a round out, it would strike the ground at the aiming point (AFH ch. 9).

The cue: to the pilot, the aiming point appears stationary. It does not move under the nose and does not move forward away from the airplane. Everything short of it and beyond it appears to move — and in opposite directions. So:

If the distance between the perceived aiming point and the horizon increases (the point moves down, away from the horizon), the true aiming point is farther down the runway — you are going to overshoot it. If that distance decreases (the point moves up toward the horizon), the true aiming point is closer than perceived — you are going to land short.

Coaching language: "Which spot on the runway isn't moving? That's where we're going." And be explicit that the aiming point is not where the airplane touches down — the round out moves touchdown farther down the runway.

Back it up with the runway-shape cue for students who cannot yet isolate the aiming point: during a stabilized approach the runway shape does not change — the trapezoid gets proportionately larger. If the approach becomes shallow, the runway appears to shorten and become wider; if the approach is steepened, the runway appears to become longer and narrower (AFH ch. 9).

While the student is looking at the runway, install the wrong-surface habit: take a moment on every final approach to verify the correctness of the landing zone ahead — runway alignment and runway number, cross-checked against a moving map. A pilot may line up with the wrong surface while perceiving the situation as normal, and if there is doubt over the landing surface, go around and consider the situation further (AFH ch. 9).

It is the single highest-value coaching item in landing instruction, and the AFH gives it in numbers (AFH ch. 9):

• The head should be in a natural, straight-ahead position; visual focus is changed slowly from a point just over the nose to the desired touchdown zone and back, with peripheral awareness of both runway edges
• The distance at which vision is focused should be proportional to groundspeed — as speed decreases during the round out, bring the focus closer
• Focus direct central vision at a shallow downward angle of 10° to 15° relative to the runway as the round out is initiated. At that steady angle, the point where your vision intercepts the runway appears progressively closer as altitude is lost — that rate of closure is the cue for sink rate. If the interception point moves farther down the runway, altitude increased and pitch was raised too rapidly

And the two failure modes, which map directly to two errors: focusing too close blurs the reference, and the reaction is too abrupt or too late — over-controlling, high round outs, and drop-in landings. Focusing too far ahead loses closeness judgment, the reaction is too slow, and the airplane flies into the ground nose first.

The physical description first (AFH ch. 9): the round out is a slow, smooth transition from approach attitude to landing attitude, rounding the flightpath out to one parallel to and a few inches above the runway, begun at 10 to 20 feet above the ground in a normal descent. AOA is increased at a rate that allows the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases — a continuous process until touchdown.

Narration, short and rhythmic:

• "Over the numbers — power coming back."
• "Start the round out. Look down the runway, not at the nose."
• "Hold it off. Hold it off."
• "Don't let it land — keep the wheels a few inches up."
• "Back… back… there it is. Nose stays up."

The AFH's own technique line is worth saying verbatim to students: focus on holding the wheels a few inches off the ground as long as possible using the elevators while power is smoothly reduced to idle. That framing produces better landings than "flare."

The rollout is part of the same narration, and it is where two listed errors live. After the mains touch, hold back-elevator pressure to maintain a positive AOA for aerodynamic braking and to hold the nose-wheel off, then gradually relax as momentum decreases so the nose-wheel settles gently — which permits steering and puts weight on the wheels for mechanical braking. Be certain no brake pressure is engaged at touchdown; early braking drops the nose and costs aerodynamic braking. And the standing warning: the landing is never complete until the airplane decelerates to normal taxi speed or is stopped clear (AFH ch. 9).

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the pilot should not push the elevator control forward. If too much back pressure was applied, it is slightly relaxed or held constant, depending on the degree of the error — and in some cases you advance the throttle slightly to prevent an excessive sink rate or a stall (AFH ch. 9).

The reason is mechanical, not stylistic: lowering the nose close to the runway causes a momentary decrease in lift and may put the nose-wheel on first, resulting in nose gear damage or collapse (AFH ch. 9). Teach it as an absolute so it survives a startle.

Related habit to model: keep one hand on the throttle throughout the approach and landing in case a sudden hazard requires immediate power.

Fifteen, and you must be able to analyze and correct them (AI.VII.B.S12) (AFH ch. 9):

1. Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely manner
2. Inadequate wind drift correction on base leg
3. An overshooting, undershooting, too steep, or too shallow turn onto final
4. A skidding turn from base to final as a result of overshooting/inadequate drift correction
5. Poor coordination base to final
6. Unstable approach
7. Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension
8. Poor trim technique on final
9. Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone
10. Focusing too close, resulting in a too high round out
11. Focusing too far, resulting in a too low round out
12. Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude
13. Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown
14. Excessive braking after touchdown
15. Loss of aircraft control during touchdown and rollout

Number 4 is the one that kills. Numbers 10 and 11 explain almost every bad flare you will ever see.

Attack the cause, not the symptom. The skid comes from overshooting the centerline or inadequate drift correction on base — the student sees the extension of the centerline sliding past and adds bottom rudder to hurry the nose around while holding bank in check with opposite aileron. That is the cross-controlled, low-altitude configuration that spins.

Teach it upstream:

• On base, establish and maintain a drift correction to follow a ground track perpendicular to the extended centerline (AFH ch. 9) — most overshoots are a base leg flown with no crab in a tailwind-toward-the-runway condition
• Position the base leg closer to the approach end when there is a strong wind on final or steep flaps are used (AFH ch. 9)
• Give a hard bank limit — 15° once established on final (AFH ch. 9 stabilized criteria) — and a hard rule: "If you can't make the centerline at 15° of bank and coordinated, we go around."
• Show them the ball, then take the ball away: teach the feel of the skid, because on a real overshoot they will not be looking at the ball

The verbal correction in the moment is one word: "Go around." Not "more rudder."

Both, but the wing-low (sideslip) method is recommended in most cases, though a combination may be used, and pilots should learn to do both (AFH ch. 9).

The wing-low sequence, taught in this order because it is the order of the inputs:

1. Rudder first — align and maintain the airplane's heading with the runway direction
2. The airplane now drifts — note the rate and direction of drift and oppose it with aileron, just enough bank to cancel the drift
3. Vary bank to intercept and hold the centerline; if the crosswind changes, adjust the sideslip

Narration: "Feet point the nose, hands stop the drift." That single line fixes more crosswind confusion than any diagram.

Crab method: hold the crab to just prior to touchdown, then use rudder to align the longitudinal axis — a change too early or too late results in a side load. On a long final, one good option is crab initially and smoothly transition to wing-low before the round out.

The ACS splits landing planning into two halves — a. Rejected landing and go-around and b. Land and hold short operations — and most applicants teach only the first. LAHSO is the case where the landing has a hard stopping constraint in addition to a touchdown point.

Start with the facts the student must own before they ever accept one (PHAK ch. 14):

• LAHSO is an ATC procedure that may require your participation, used when simultaneous operations are being conducted on intersecting runways
• As PIC you have the final authority to accept or decline any LAHSO clearance, and you must advise ATC if you cannot comply
• Know the landing distance available before accepting — this is the number that makes the decision, and it is not the runway length
• Know what signs and markings are at the LAHSO point, and be advised by ATC as to why LAHSO are being conducted
• Pilots should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum ceiling of 1,000 feet and 3 statute miles visibility; generally LAHSO are not authorized at night, and not authorized on wet runways
• On "cleared to land Runway 36, hold short of Runway 23," you must either exit Runway 36 or stop at the holding position prior to Runway 23

Then the item that decides how you teach it: LAHSO are not authorized for student pilots who are performing a solo flight. So your presolo students will never legally accept one — which means your job is to teach the decline, out loud, as a normal radio call, before the day they are alone and an unexpected clearance arrives.

For a dual student on a normal landing, the planning sequence is: available landing distance against POH landing distance, a go/no-go before the clearance is accepted, and a briefed rollout plan. And connect it forward to Task VII.N — the go-around from an accepted LAHSO clearance changes the constraint rather than removing it.

The round out was made too rapidly, and the airplane is flying level, too high above the runway — it appears to temporarily stop moving downward. Continuing the round out reduces airspeed and increases AOA to the critical angle, and the airplane stalls and drops hard onto the runway (AFH ch. 9).

The fix: hold the pitch attitude constant until the airplane decelerates enough to start descending again, then continue the round out to the landing attitude. This is only used when there is adequate airspeed, and it may take a slight amount of power to keep speed from decaying and lift from being lost too quickly.

Coaching: "Freeze it. Don't add any more back pressure — just hold what you have."

Go-around trigger: the AFH is explicit — execute a go-around any time it appears the nose needs to be lowered significantly, or the landing is in any other way uncertain.

The student misjudges the sink rate, thinks the airplane is descending faster than it is, and increases pitch attitude and AOA too rapidly — the descent stops and the airplane starts climbing. Ballooning is dangerous because height above the ground is increasing while the airplane is rapidly approaching a stalled condition; the altitude gained depends on airspeed and how fast pitch was increased (AFH ch. 9).

Fix, if slight: use throttle to cushion the landing — power keeps airspeed from decaying too rapidly and the wings from suddenly losing lift — then close the throttle immediately after touchdown. Torque changes with power, so use rudder to keep it straight as it settles.

The crosswind trap, which is the part CFI applicants miss: the crosswind correction may be inadvertently released or become inadequate. Because airspeed is lower after ballooning, the crosswind affects the airplane more, and the wing has to be lowered even further. Make certain the correct wing is down with opposite rudder — if there is any doubt, or the airplane starts to drift, go around.

Go-around trigger: when ballooning is excessive, go around immediately and do not attempt to salvage the landing — apply power before the airplane enters a stalled condition.

Excessive airspeed on final (AFH ch. 9). Diving at the runway to reach the proper point adds an appreciable increase in airspeed, and then the proper touchdown attitude cannot be established without producing excessive AOA and lift — which balloons.

Fix: smoothly and gradually adjust pitch as the airplane decelerates and starts to settle, so the proper landing attitude arrives at the moment of touchdown. The AFH warns that the slightest error in judgment and timing results in either ballooning or bouncing — so judgment of speed, height, and sink rate has to be especially acute.

Go-around trigger, and it is a number: if a landing cannot be made on the first third of the runway, or the airplane drifts sideways, execute a go-around. Floating consumes runway, so avoid it especially on short runways or in strong crosswinds.

The real fix is upstream — floating is an approach-speed error, so debrief the final approach, not the flare.

The airplane does not bounce like a rubber ball. It rebounds because the wing's AOA was abruptly increased, producing a sudden addition of lift — the abrupt AOA change comes from inertia instantly forcing the tail downward when the main wheels contact sharply. Severity depends on airspeed at contact and how much the pitch attitude increased (AFH ch. 9).

Because a bounce occurs when contact happens before the proper touchdown attitude is attained, it is almost invariably accompanied by excessive back-elevator pressure — the student realized too late and pulled just as the second touchdown occurred.

Slight bounce: apply sufficient power to cushion the subsequent touchdown and smoothly adjust pitch to the proper attitude.

Crosswind: maintain the crosswind correction — the subsequent touchdown is at a slower airspeed, so the upwind wing must be lowered even further. If correction is released, one main strikes, the other follows, the wings level, and the wind rolls the airplane with it, exposing more surface and increasing drift.

Go-around trigger: when a bounce is severe, go around immediately — do not attempt to salvage. Full power, directional control, nose to a safe climb attitude, and continue the go-around even though another bounce may occur. Landing from a bad bounce should not be attempted, because airspeed decays very rapidly in the nose-high attitude and a stall may occur before a subsequent touchdown.

A bounced landing that is improperly recovered: the airplane comes in nose first, initiating a series of motions imitating the jumps and dives of a porpoise (AFH ch. 9). Causes of the improper touchdown attitude: inattention, not knowing where the ground is, mis-trimming, or forcing the airplane onto the runway.

Two mechanisms worth teaching: ground effect decreases elevator control effectiveness and increases the effort required to raise the nose, so insufficient nose-up trim can produce a nose-low contact and start a porpoise. The other is improper airspeed control — a fast approach floats, the pilot forces it on while the airplane still wants to fly, and a gust, a bump in the runway, or a slight tug on the wheel sends it aloft again.

Slight porpoise: same as a bounce — power to cushion, pitch smoothly to the proper attitude.

Why you take the airplane: when pilots attempt to correct a severe porpoise with flight control and power inputs, the inputs are often untimely and may increase the severity of each successive contact — pilot-induced oscillations that may lead to damage or collapse of the nose gear. A student who is chasing the oscillation cannot stop chasing it on a verbal cue at one-second intervals.

Go-around trigger: when porpoising is severe or seems to be getting worse, go around immediately — full power, directional control, nose to a safe climb attitude. In practice: second divergent oscillation, you say "I have the flight controls" and you go around.

Weight becomes concentrated about the nose-wheel during the takeoff or landing roll. It may cause loss of directional control because braking action is ineffective and the airplane tends to swerve or pivot on the nose-wheel, particularly in a crosswind (AFH ch. 9).

The most common cause on landing: a simultaneous touchdown of the main and nose-wheel with excessive speed, followed by forward pressure on the elevator control. Usually the situation can be corrected by smoothly applying back-elevator pressure.

Prevention is the teaching point: wheelbarrowing does not occur if the pilot achieves and maintains the correct landing attitude, touches down at the proper speed, and gently lowers the nose-wheel while losing speed on rollout.

Go-around trigger: if wheelbarrowing is encountered and runway and other conditions permit, promptly initiate a go-around. If staying on the ground is safer because directional control is lost, close the throttle and adjust pitch smoothly but firmly to the proper landing attitude.

Related turbulent-air note: after a touchdown from a power approach in turbulence, avoid the tendency to apply forward pressure on the yoke — this may result in wheelbarrowing and possible loss of control (AFH ch. 9).

If the round out and touchdown are made while drifting or in a crab, the airplane contacts the ground while moving sideways, imposing extreme side loads on the landing gear and, if severe enough, structural failure (AFH ch. 9).

The chain: tire tread resists the sideward movement, the sideward velocity is abruptly decelerated, and that creates a moment around the main wheel tending to overturn or tip the airplane. If the upwind wingtip is raised, all the weight and shock of landing is borne by one main wheel — tire failure or structural damage. Meanwhile the crosswind acts on the fuselage side area behind the mains, tending to weathervane the airplane — which often results in a ground loop.

Give the number: as little as 10° of cornering angle creates a side load equal to half the supported weight; after 20° the side load does not increase further. For each high-wing tricycle-gear airplane there is a cornering angle at which roll-over is inevitable — and below it, roll-over is avoided with ailerons, rudder, or nose-wheel steering, but not brakes (AFH ch. 9).

The cure is the wing-low method, which keeps the longitudinal axis aligned with both the runway and the direction of motion throughout the approach and touchdown.

They stop increasing the correction. Since airspeed decreases as the round out progresses, the flight controls gradually become less effective, so the crosswind correction being held becomes inadequate — with the wing-low method it is necessary to gradually increase the deflection of rudder and ailerons (AFH ch. 9). Keep the upwind wing down throughout the round out; if the wings are leveled, the airplane begins drifting.

Touchdown is on the upwind main wheel first; as forward momentum decreases the downwind main settles on. In airplanes with nose-wheel steering interconnected with the rudder, the nose-wheel is not aligned with the runway at touchdown because opposite rudder is held — relax the corrective rudder pressure as the nose-wheel touches down to prevent a swerve.

On the rollout the crosswind gets worse, not better: as forward speed decreases, the relative wind acts in a direction more aligned with the crosswind component, so more and more aileron is applied, and when the airplane is coming to a stop, the aileron control should be held fully toward the wind.

Coaching line for the rollout: "Keep flying it. More aileron. All the way into the wind."

Flaps do four things (AFH ch. 9):

• Greater lift, permitting lower approach and landing speeds
• Greater drag, permitting a steeper descent angle
• Increased forward visibility, by allowing a lower pitch
• Reduced landing roll

Instructor-depth detail worth having: increased camber increases lift primarily on the rear portion of the wing, producing a nose-down pitching moment; flap deployment also alters downwash on the horizontal tail and the tail-down force, so pitch behavior from flap extension depends on the particular airplane. Up to 15° primarily produces lift with minimal drag — hence the tendency to balloon on initial extension, partly offset by the nose-down moment — while beyond 15° produces a large increase in drag, and in certain high-wing airplanes a significant nose-up moment from changed downwash.

Teaching consequence: extend flaps in increments on downwind, base, and final. Large changes at one point produce large lift changes requiring significant pitch and power changes; incremental extension supports the stabilized approach. Re-trim whenever the flap setting changes — "failure to adequately compensate for flap extension" and "poor trim technique" are both listed errors.

And the correction rule that saves a low approach: retracting flaps to correct for an undershoot creates an unnecessary risk — it may cause a sudden decrease in lift, an excessive sink rate, and an aggravated unstable condition.

Change three things (AFH ch. 9):

• Speed — a power-on approach slightly above normal approach speed; the common technique is normal approach speed plus one-half of the gust factor (70 knots normal with 15-knot gusts gives 77 knots). Conform to the AFM/POH.
• Flaps — partial flaps in turbulence with a gusty crosswind. Less than full flaps means a higher pitch attitude, so less pitch change is needed to reach the landing attitude, and touchdown occurs at a higher airspeed for more positive control.
• Power — retard the throttle to idle only after the main wheels contact. Sudden or premature closing of the throttle may cause a sudden increase in descent rate and a hard landing.

Touchdown is made in approximately a level flight attitude — only enough pitch to keep the nose-wheel from touching first. Then avoid forward pressure (wheelbarrowing) and avoid heavy braking until the wings are devoid of lift.